Journal Description
Polymers
Polymers
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of polymer science published semimonthly online by MDPI. Belgian Polymer Group (BPG), European Colloid & Interface Society (ECIS), National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM) and North American Thermal Analysis Society (NATAS) are affiliated with Polymers and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, PubMed, PMC, FSTA, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Polymer Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (Polymers and Plastics)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 13.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in MDPI journals, in appreciation of the work.
- Testimonials: See what our authors and editors say about Polymers.
Impact Factor:
5.0 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
5.0 (2022)
Latest Articles
Ultrafast Polymerization of a Self-Adhesive and Strain Sensitive Hydrogel-Based Flexible Sensor for Human Motion Monitoring and Handwriting Recognition
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1595; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111595 (registering DOI) - 4 Jun 2024
Abstract
Hydrogel-based flexible electronic devices have great potential in human motion monitoring, electronic skins, and human-computer interaction applications; hence, the efficient preparation of highly sensitive hydrogel-based flexible sensors is important. In the present work, the ultrafast polymerization of a hydrogel (1–3 min) was achieved
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Hydrogel-based flexible electronic devices have great potential in human motion monitoring, electronic skins, and human-computer interaction applications; hence, the efficient preparation of highly sensitive hydrogel-based flexible sensors is important. In the present work, the ultrafast polymerization of a hydrogel (1–3 min) was achieved by constructing a tannic acid (TA)-Fe3+ dynamic redox system, which endowed the hydrogel with good adhesion performance (the adhesion strength in wood was 17.646 kPa). In addition, the uniform dispersal ensured by incorporating polydopamine-decorated polypyrrole (PPy@PDA) into the hydrogel matrix significantly improved the hydrogel’s stretching ability (575.082%). The as-prepared PAM/CS/PPy@PDA/TA hydrogel-based flexible sensor had a high-fidelity low detection limit (strain = 1%), high sensitivity at small strains (GF = 5.311 at strain = 0–8%), and fast response time (0.33 s) and recovery time (0.25 s), and it was reliably applied to accurate human motion monitoring and handwriting recognition. The PAM/CS/PPy@PDA/TA hydrogel opens new horizons for wearable electronic devices, electronic skins, and human-computer interaction applications.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymers: Interaction, Surface, Processing and Applications II)
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Characterization of Cellulosic Pulps Isolated from Two Widespread Agricultural Wastes: Cotton and Sunflower Stalks
by
M. Dolores La Rubia, Sofía Jurado-Contreras, Francisco Javier Navas-Martos, Ángeles García-Ruiz, Francisca Morillas-Gutiérrez, Alberto J. Moya, Soledad Mateo and José Antonio Rodríguez-Liébana
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1594; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111594 (registering DOI) - 4 Jun 2024
Abstract
Globally, huge amounts of cotton and sunflower stalks are generated annually. These wastes are being underutilized since they are mostly burned in the fields. So, in this work, we proposed a three-step method consisting of acid pre-treatment, alkaline hydrolysis, and bleaching for the
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Globally, huge amounts of cotton and sunflower stalks are generated annually. These wastes are being underutilized since they are mostly burned in the fields. So, in this work, we proposed a three-step method consisting of acid pre-treatment, alkaline hydrolysis, and bleaching for the extraction of cellulose pulps. These pulps were characterized to assess their morpho-structural and thermal properties. The design of experiments and response surface methodology were used for the optimization of the acid pre-treatment in order to achieve maximum removal of non-cellulosic compounds and obtain pulps enriched in cellulose. For cotton stalks, optimal conditions were identified as a reaction time of 190 min, a reaction temperature of 96.2 °C, and an acid (nitric acid) concentration of 6.3%. For sunflower stalks, the optimized time, temperature, and acid concentration were 130 min, 73.8 °C, and 8.7%, respectively. The pulps obtained after bleaching contained more than 90% cellulose. However, special care must be taken during the process, especially in the acid pre-treatment, as it causes the solubilization of a great amount of material. The characterization revealed that the extraction process led to cellulose pulps with around 69–70% crystallinity and thermal stability in the range of 340–350 °C, ready to be used for their conversion into derivatives for industrial applications.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Polymer Materials: Cellulose, Lignin and Chitosan)
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Open AccessArticle
Improving Pore Characteristics, Mechanical Properties and Thermal Performances of Near-Net Shape Manufacturing Phenolic Resin Aerogels
by
Ruyi Sha, Jixiang Dai, Bingzhu Wang and Jianjun Sha
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1593; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111593 (registering DOI) - 4 Jun 2024
Abstract
Thermally stable high-performance phenolic resin aerogels (PRAs) are of great interest for thermal insulation because of their light weight, fire retardancy and low thermal conductivity. However, the drawbacks of PRA synthesis, such as long processing time, inherent brittleness and significant shrinkage during drying,
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Thermally stable high-performance phenolic resin aerogels (PRAs) are of great interest for thermal insulation because of their light weight, fire retardancy and low thermal conductivity. However, the drawbacks of PRA synthesis, such as long processing time, inherent brittleness and significant shrinkage during drying, greatly restrict their wide applications. In this work, PRAs were synthesized at ambient pressure through a near-net shape manufacturing technique, where boron-containing thermosetting phenolic resin (BPR) was introduced into the conventional linear phenolic resin (LPR) to improve the pore characteristics, mechanical properties and thermal performances. Compared with the traditional LPR-synthesized aerogel, the processing time and the linear shrinkage rate during the drying of the PRAs could be significantly reduced, which was attributed to the enhanced rigidity and the unique bimodal pore size distribution. Furthermore, no catastrophic failure and almost no mechanical degradation were observed on the PRAs, even with a compressive strain of up to 60% at temperatures ranging from 25 to 200 °C, indicating low brittleness and excellent thermo-mechanical stability. The PRAs also showed outstanding fire retardancy. On the other hand, the PRAs with a density of 0.194 g/cm3 possessed a high Young’s modulus of 12.85 MPa and a low thermal conductivity of 0.038 W/(m·K).
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resin-Based Polymer Materials and Related Applications: Volume 2)
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Open AccessArticle
Fabrication of k-Carrageenan/Alginate/Carboxymethyl Cellulose basedScaffolds via 3D Printing for Potential Biomedical Applications
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Cristina Stavarache, Adi Ghebaur, Andrada Serafim, George Mihail Vlăsceanu, Eugeniu Vasile, Sorina Alexandra Gârea and Horia Iovu
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1592; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111592 (registering DOI) - 4 Jun 2024
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology was able to generate great attention because of its unique methodology and for its major potential to manufacture detailed and customizable scaffolds in terms of size, shape and pore structure in fields like medicine, pharmaceutics and food. This study
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Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology was able to generate great attention because of its unique methodology and for its major potential to manufacture detailed and customizable scaffolds in terms of size, shape and pore structure in fields like medicine, pharmaceutics and food. This study aims to fabricate an ink entirely composed of natural polymers, alginate, k-carrageenan and carboxymethyl cellulose (AkCMC). Extrusion-based 3D printing was used to obtain scaffolds based on a crosslinked interpenetrating polymer network from the alginate, k-carrageenan, carboxymethyl cellulose and glutaraldehide formulation using CaCl2, KCl and glutaraldehyde in various concentrations of acetic acid. The stabile bonding of the crosslinked scaffolds was assessed using infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) as well as swelling, degradation and mechanical investigations. Moreover, morphology analysis (µCT and SEM) confirmed the 3D printed samples’ porous structure. In the AkCMC-GA objects crosslinked with the biggest acetic acid concentration, the values of pores and walls are the highest, at 3.9 × 10−2 µm−1. Additionally, this research proves the encapsulation of vitamin B1 via FT-IR and UV-Vis spectroscopy. The highest encapsulation efficiency of vitamin B1 was registered for the AkCMC-GA samples crosslinked with the maximum acetic acid concentration. The kinetic release of the vitamin was evaluated by UV-Vis spectroscopy. Based on the results of these experiments, 3D printed constructs using AkCMC-GA ink could be used for soft tissue engineering applications and also for vitamin B1 encapsulation.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)
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Open AccessArticle
Adhesion and Transparency Enhancement between Flexible Polyimide-PDMS Copolymerized Film and Copper Foil for LED Transparent Screen
by
Xinming Wang, Yuting Zhao, Heming Li, Weiguo Gao, Yan Liu, Anning Sun, Ke Ma, Zhizhi Hu and Yongqi Wang
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1591; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111591 (registering DOI) - 4 Jun 2024
Abstract
With the increasing demand for innovative electronic products, LED transparent screens are gradually entering the public eye. Polyimide (PI) materials combine high temperature resistance and high transparency, which can be used to prepare flexible copper-clad laminate substrates. The physical and chemical properties of
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With the increasing demand for innovative electronic products, LED transparent screens are gradually entering the public eye. Polyimide (PI) materials combine high temperature resistance and high transparency, which can be used to prepare flexible copper-clad laminate substrates. The physical and chemical properties of PI materials differ from copper, such as their thermal expansion coefficients (CTEs), surface energy, etc. These differences affect the formation and stability of the interface between copper and PI films, resulting in a short life for LED transparent screens. To enhance PI-copper interfacial adhesion, aminopropyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) can be used to increase the adhesive ability. Two diamine monomers with a trifluoromethyl structure and a sulfone group structure were selected in this research. Bisphenol type A diether dianhydride is a dianhydride monomer. All three of the above monomers have non−coplanar structures and flexible structural units. The adhesion and optical properties can be improved between the interface of the synthesized PI films and copper foil. PI films containing PDMS 0, 1, 3, and 5 wt% were analyzed using UV spectroscopy. The transmittance of the PI-1/3%, PI-1/5%, PI-2/3%, and PI-2/5% films were all more than 80% at 450 nm. Meanwhile, the Td 5% and Td 10% heat loss and Tg temperatures decreased gradually with the increase in PDMS. The peel adhesion of PI-copper foil was measured using a 180° peel assay. The effect of PDMS addition on peel adhesion was analyzed. PIs-3% films had the greatest peeling intensities of 0.98 N/mm and 0.85 N/mm.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behaviors and Properties of Polymer Materials)
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Open AccessArticle
Nitrogen-Blowing Assisted Strategy for Fabricating Large-Area Organic Solar Modules with an Efficiency of 15.6%
by
Yingying Cheng, Yitong Ji, Dongyang Zhang, Xiangda Liu, Zezhou Xia, Xiujun Liu, Xueyuan Yang and Wenchao Huang
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1590; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111590 (registering DOI) - 4 Jun 2024
Abstract
Organic solar cells (OSCs) are one of the most promising photovoltaic technologies due to their affordability and adaptability. However, upscaling is a critical issue that hinders the commercialization of OSCs. A significant challenge is the lack of cost-effective and facile techniques to modulate
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Organic solar cells (OSCs) are one of the most promising photovoltaic technologies due to their affordability and adaptability. However, upscaling is a critical issue that hinders the commercialization of OSCs. A significant challenge is the lack of cost-effective and facile techniques to modulate the morphology of the active layers. The slow solvent evaporation leads to an unfavorable phase separation, thus resulting in a low power conversion efficiency (PCE) of organic solar modules. Here, a nitrogen-blowing assisted method is developed to fabricate a large-area organic solar module (active area = 12 cm2) utilizing high-boiling-point solvents, achieving a PCE of 15.6%. The device fabricated with a high-boiling-point solvent produces a more uniform and smoother large-area film, and the assistance of nitrogen-blowing accelerates solvent evaporation, resulting in an optimized morphology with proper phase separation and finer aggregates. Moreover, the device fabricated by the nitrogen-blowing assisted method exhibits improved exciton dissociation, balanced carrier mobility, and reduced charge recombination. This work proposes a universal and cost-effective technique for the fabrication of high-efficiency organic solar modules.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art and Perspectives of Polymer Science and Technology in China)
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Open AccessArticle
Experimental and Numerical Investigation Integrated with Machine Learning (ML) for the Prediction Strategy of DP590/CFRP Composite Laminates
by
Haichao Hu, Qiang Wei, Tianao Wang, Quanjin Ma, Peng Jin, Shupeng Pan, Fengqi Li, Shuxin Wang, Yuxuan Yang and Yan Li
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1589; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111589 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
This study unveils a machine learning (ML)-assisted framework designed to optimize the stacking sequence and orientation of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP)/metal composite laminates, aiming to enhance their mechanical properties under quasi-static loading conditions. This work pioneers the expansion of initial datasets for ML
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This study unveils a machine learning (ML)-assisted framework designed to optimize the stacking sequence and orientation of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP)/metal composite laminates, aiming to enhance their mechanical properties under quasi-static loading conditions. This work pioneers the expansion of initial datasets for ML analysis in the field by uniquely integrating the experimental results with finite element simulations. Nine ML models, including XGBoost and gradient boosting, were assessed for their precision in predicting tensile and bending strengths. The findings reveal that the XGBoost and gradient boosting models excel in tensile strength prediction due to their low error rates and high interpretability. In contrast, the decision trees, K-nearest neighbors (KNN), and random forest models show the highest accuracy in bending strength predictions. Tree-based models demonstrated exceptional performance across various metrics, notably for CFRP/DP590 laminates. Additionally, this study investigates the impact of layup sequences on mechanical properties, employing an innovative combination of ML, numerical, and experimental approaches. The novelty of this study lies in the first-time application of these ML models to the performance optimization of CFRP/metal composites and in providing a novel perspective through the comprehensive integration of experimental, numerical, and ML methods for composite material design and performance prediction.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymers Science and Technology: From Nano-Engineering to Multifunctional Applications)
Open AccessArticle
Comparison of Mechanical Property Simulations with Results of Limited Flexural Tests of Different Multi-Layer Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
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Ronald Bastovansky, Lukas Smetanka, Robert Kohar, Rajesh Kumar Mishra and Michal Petru
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1588; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111588 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
This article is focused on the experimental study of flexural properties in different multi-layer carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites and correlations with the results of finite element method (FEM) simulations of mechanical properties. The comparison of the results shows the possibility of reducing
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This article is focused on the experimental study of flexural properties in different multi-layer carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites and correlations with the results of finite element method (FEM) simulations of mechanical properties. The comparison of the results shows the possibility of reducing the number of experimental specimens for testing. The experimental study of flexural properties for four types of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites with twill weaves (2 × 2) was carried out. As input materials, pre-impregnated carbon laminate GG 204 T and GG 630 T (prepreg) and two types of carbon fiber fabrics (GG 285 T and GG 300 T (fabric)) were used. Multi-layer samples were manufactured from two types of prepregs and two types of fabrics, which were hand-impregnated during sample preparation. The layers were stacked using same orientation. All specimens for flexural test were cut with the longer side in the weft direction. Pre-impregnated carbon laminates were further impregnated with resin DT 121H. Carbon fabrics were hand-impregnated with epoxy matrix LG 120 and hardener HG 700. To fulfill the aim of this research, finite element method (FEM)-based simulations of mechanical properties were performed. The FEM simulations and analysis were conducted in Hexagon’s MSC Marc Mentat 2022.3 and Digimat 2022.4 software. This paper presents the results of actual experimental bending tests and the results of simulations of bending tests for different composite materials (mentioned previously). We created material models for simulations based on two methods—MF (Mean Field) and FE (Finite Element), and the comparative results show better agreement with the MF model. The composites (GG 285 T and GG 300 T) showed better flexural results than composites made from pre-impregnated carbon laminates (GG 204 T and GG 630 T). The difference in results for the hand-impregnated laminates was about 15% higher than for prepregs, but this is still within an acceptable tolerance as per the reported literature. The highest percentage difference of 14.25% between the simulation and the real experiment was found for the software tool Digimat FE 2022.4 – GG 630 T composite. The lowest difference of 0.5% was found for the software tool Digimat MF 2022.4 – GG 204 T composite. By comparing the results of the software tools with the results of the experimental measurements, it was found that the Digimat MF 2022.4 tool is closer to the results of the experimental measurements than the Digimat FE 2022.4 tool.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites)
Open AccessArticle
Synthesis of Polymer Brushes on Tannic Acid-Coated Copper Particles and Surface Co-Assembly
by
Chen Wang and Hanying Zhao
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1587; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111587 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
The synthesis of polymer brushes on inorganic particles is an effective approach to surface modification. The polymer brushes on the surface endow the substrates with new surface properties. However, the lack of functional groups and the difficulty of surface modification have made it
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The synthesis of polymer brushes on inorganic particles is an effective approach to surface modification. The polymer brushes on the surface endow the substrates with new surface properties. However, the lack of functional groups and the difficulty of surface modification have made it difficult to develop an effective method for the synthesis of polymer brushes on metal surfaces. Herein, a simple and versatile strategy for synthesizing polymer brushes on copper particles is reported. Tannic acid (TA) molecules are adsorbed onto the surfaces of copper particles, forming TA coatings. Quaternized poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-block-polystyrene (qPDMAEMA-b-PS) block copolymer (BCP) chains are grafted on the TA coatings through hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interaction, and PS brushes are grafted on the copper particles. The effects of TA concentration on the adsorption of TA and PS brush synthesis are discussed. The PS brushes are able to form surface nanostructures on the copper particles through co-assembly with PDMAEMA-b-PS BCP chains. The effect of BCP concentration on the surface nanostructures is investigated. It is reasonable to expect that polymer brushes and surface nanostructures can be synthesized on different metal surfaces by using the TA-coating approach reported in this paper.
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(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Chemistry)
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Freeze-Dried β-Glucan and Poly-γ-glutamic Acid: An Efficient Stabilizer to Strengthen Subgrades of Low Compressible Fine-Grained Soils with Varying Curing Periods
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Muralidaran Vishweshwaran, Evangelin Ramani Sujatha and Jair Arrieta Baldovino
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1586; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111586 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
The freeze-drying of biopolymers presents a fresh option with greater potential for application in soil subgrade stabilization. A freeze-dried combination of β-glucan (BG) and γ-poly-glutamic acid (GPA) biopolymers was used to treat low compressible clay (CL) and low compressible silt (ML) soils in
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The freeze-drying of biopolymers presents a fresh option with greater potential for application in soil subgrade stabilization. A freeze-dried combination of β-glucan (BG) and γ-poly-glutamic acid (GPA) biopolymers was used to treat low compressible clay (CL) and low compressible silt (ML) soils in dosages of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2%. The California bearing ratio (CBR) test for the treated specimens was performed under three curing conditions: (i) thermal curing at 60 °C, (ii) air-curing for seven days followed by submergence for 4 days, and (iii) no curing, i.e., tested immediately after mixing. To investigate the influence of shear strength on the freeze-dried biopolymer-stabilized soil specimens and their variations with aging, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were conducted after thermal curing at 60 °C for 3 days, 7 days, and 7 days of thermal curing followed by 21 days of air curing. The maximum CBR of 125.3% was observed for thermally cured CL and a minimum CBR of 6.1% was observed under soaked curing conditions for ML soils. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), infrared spectroscopy, average particle size, permeability, and adsorption tests revealed the pore filling, biopolymer adsorption and coating on the soil surface, and agglomeration of the soil along with the presence of hydrogen bonds, covalent amide bonds, and Van der Waals forces that contributed to the stiffening of the stabilized soil. Using three-dimensional (3D) finite element analysis (FEA) and layered elastic analysis (LEA), a mechanistic–empirical pavement design was carried out for the stabilized soil and a design thickness catalog was prepared for the maximum CBR. The cost reductions for a 1 km section of the pavement were expected to be 12.5%.
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(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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Open AccessArticle
Gelation and Plugging Performance of Low-Concentration Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide/Polyethyleneimine System at Moderate Temperature and in Fractured Low-Permeability Reservoir
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Kai Wang, Mingliang Luo, Mingzhong Li, Xiaoyu Gu, Xu Li, Qiao Fan, Chunsheng Pu and Liangliang Wang
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1585; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111585 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
HPAM/PEI gel is a promising material for conformance control in hydrocarbon reservoirs. However, its use in low-permeability reservoirs is limited by the high polymer concentrations present. In this study, the gelation performance of an HPAM/PEI system with HPAM < 2.0 wt.% was systematically
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HPAM/PEI gel is a promising material for conformance control in hydrocarbon reservoirs. However, its use in low-permeability reservoirs is limited by the high polymer concentrations present. In this study, the gelation performance of an HPAM/PEI system with HPAM < 2.0 wt.% was systematically investigated. The gelation time for HPAM concentrations ranging from 0.4 to 2.0 wt.% varied from less than 1 h to 23 days, with the highest gel strength identified as grade H. The hydrodynamic radius manifested the primary effect of HPAM on the gelation performance. Branched PEI provided superior gelation performance over linear PEI, and the gelation performance was only affected when the molecular weight of the PEI varied significantly. The optimal number ratio of the PEI-provided imine groups and the HPAM-provided carboxylic acid functional groups was approximately 1.6:1~5:1. Regarding the reservoir conditions, the temperature had a crucial effect on the hydrodynamic radius of HPAM. Salts delayed the gelation process, and the order of ionic influence was Ca2+ > Na+ > K+. The pH controlled the crosslinking reaction, primarily due to the protonation degree of PEI and the hydrolysis degree of HPAM, and the most suitable pH was approximately 10.5. Plugging experiments based on a through-type fracture showed that multi-slug plugging could significantly improve the plugging performance of the system, being favorable for its application in fractured low-permeability reservoirs.
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(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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Open AccessArticle
Harnessing Enhanced Flame Retardancy in Rigid Polyurethane Composite Foams through Hemp Seed Oil-Derived Natural Fillers
by
Mansi Ahir, Chandan Bodhak and Ram K. Gupta
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1584; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111584 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
Over the past few decades, polymer composites have received significant interest and become protagonists due to their enhanced properties and wide range of applications. Herein, we examined the impact of filler and flame retardants in hemp seed oil-based rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) composites’
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Over the past few decades, polymer composites have received significant interest and become protagonists due to their enhanced properties and wide range of applications. Herein, we examined the impact of filler and flame retardants in hemp seed oil-based rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) composites’ performance. Firstly, the hemp seed oil (HSO) was converted to a corresponding epoxy analog, followed by a ring-opening reaction to synthesize hemp bio-polyols. The hemp polyol was then reacted with diisocyanate in the presence of commercial polyols and other foaming components to produce RPUF in a single step. In addition, different fillers like microcrystalline cellulose, alkaline lignin, titanium dioxide, and melamine (as a flame retardant) were used in different wt.% ratios to fabricate composite foam. The mechanical characteristics, thermal degradation behavior, cellular morphology, apparent density, flammability, and closed-cell contents of the generated composite foams were examined. An initial screening of different fillers revealed that microcrystalline cellulose significantly improves the mechanical strength up to 318 kPa. The effect of melamine as a flame retardant in composite foam was also examined, which shows the highest compression strength of 447 kPa. Significantly better anti-flaming qualities than those of neat foam based on HSO have been reflected using 22.15 wt.% of melamine, with the lowest burning time of 4.1 s and weight loss of 1.88 wt.%. All the composite foams showed about 90% closed-cell content. The present work illustrates the assembly of a filler-based polyurethane foam composite with anti-flaming properties from bio-based feedstocks with high-performance applications.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flame-Retardant Polymer Composites II)
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Open AccessArticle
Photoluminescent Nanocellulosic Film for Selective Hg2+ Ion Detection
by
Jing Sun, Wenwen Fang, Afroza Akter Liza, Rui Gao, Junlong Song, Jiaqi Guo and Orlando J. Rojas
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1583; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111583 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
We developed a highly sensitive solid-state sensor for mercury detection by stabilizing red-sub-nanometric fluorescent gold nanoclusters (AuNC, 0.9 ± 0.1 nm diameter) with bovine serum albumin in a matrix composed of cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) (BSA-AuNC/CNF). The main morphological and optical features of the
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We developed a highly sensitive solid-state sensor for mercury detection by stabilizing red-sub-nanometric fluorescent gold nanoclusters (AuNC, 0.9 ± 0.1 nm diameter) with bovine serum albumin in a matrix composed of cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) (BSA-AuNC/CNF). The main morphological and optical features of the system were investigated via atomic force/transmission electron microscopy and UV-Vis/fluorescence spectroscopy. The hybrid film (off-white and highly transparent) showed strong photoluminescene under UV irradiation. The latter is assigned to the AuNC, which also increase the ductility of the emitting film, which was demonstrated for high sensitivity Hg2+ detection. When used as a sensor system, following AuNC printing on CNF hybrid films, a limit of detection <10 nM was confirmed. What is more, nanocellulose films have a high pore structure and selective separation properties, showcasing a wide range of potential applications in many fields such as water treatment and oil–water separation.
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(This article belongs to the Section Circular and Green Polymer Science)
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Open AccessReview
Lunar Regolith Geopolymer Concrete for In-Situ Construction of Lunar Bases: A Review
by
Xiaowei Zheng, Cong Zhao, Xiaoyan Sun and Weiwei Dong
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1582; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111582 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
The construction of lunar bases represents a fundamental challenge for deep space exploration, lunar research, and the exploitation of lunar resources. In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) technology constitutes a pivotal tool for constructing lunar bases. Using lunar regolith to create geopolymers as construction materials
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The construction of lunar bases represents a fundamental challenge for deep space exploration, lunar research, and the exploitation of lunar resources. In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) technology constitutes a pivotal tool for constructing lunar bases. Using lunar regolith to create geopolymers as construction materials offers multiple advantages as an ISRU technique. This paper discusses the principle of geopolymer for lunar regolith, focusing on the reaction principle of geopolymer. It also analyzes the applicability of geopolymer under the effects of the lunar surface environment and the differences between the highland and mare lunar regolith. This paper summarizes the characteristics of existing lunar regolith simulants and the research on the mechanical properties of lunar regolith geopolymers using lunar regolith simulants. Highland lunar regolith samples contain approximately 36% amorphous substances, the content of silicon is approximately 28%, and the ratios of Si/Al and Si/Ca are approximately 1.5 and 2.6, respectively. They are more suitable as precursor materials for geopolymers than mare samples. The compressive strength of lunar regolith geopolymer is mainly in the range of 18~30 MPa. Sodium silicate is the most commonly utilized activator for lunar regolith geopolymers; alkalinity in the range of 7% to 10% and modulus in the range of 0.8 to 2.0 are suitable. A vacuum environment and multiple temperature cycles reduce the mechanical properties of geopolymers by 8% to 70%. Future research should be concentrated on the precision control of the lunar regolith’s chemical properties and the alkali activation efficacy of geopolymers in the lunar environment.
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(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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Open AccessArticle
Synthesis and Characterization of Maghemite Nanoparticles Functionalized with Poly(Sodium 4-Styrene Sulfonate) Saloplastic and Its Acute Ecotoxicological Impact on the Cladoceran Daphnia magna
by
Juan A. Ramos-Guivar, Renzo Rueda-Vellasmin, Erich V. Manrique-Castillo, F. Mendoza-Villa, Noemi-Raquel Checca-Huaman and Edson C. Passamani
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1581; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111581 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
Using a modified co-precipitation method, 11(2) nm γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticles functionalized with PSSNa [Poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate)] saloplastic polymer were successfully synthesized, and their structural, vibrational, electronic, thermal, colloidal, hyperfine, and magnetic properties were systematically studied using various analytic techniques. The results showed
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Using a modified co-precipitation method, 11(2) nm γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticles functionalized with PSSNa [Poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate)] saloplastic polymer were successfully synthesized, and their structural, vibrational, electronic, thermal, colloidal, hyperfine, and magnetic properties were systematically studied using various analytic techniques. The results showed that the functionalized γ-Fe2O3/PSSNa nanohybrid has physicochemical properties that allow it to be applied in the magnetic remediation process of water. Before being applied as a nanoadsorbent in real water treatment, a short-term acute assay was developed and standardized using a Daphnia magna biomarker. The ecotoxicological tests indicated that the different concentrations of the functionalized nanohybrid may affect the mortality of the Daphnia magna population during the first 24 h of exposure. A lethal concentration of 533(5) mg L−1 was found. At high concentrations, morphological changes were also seen in the body, heart, and antenna. Therefore, these results suggested the presence of alterations in normal growth and swimming skills. The main changes observed in the D. magna features were basically caused by the PSSNa polymer due to its highly stable colloidal properties (zeta potential > −30 mV) that permit a direct and constant interaction with the Daphnia magna neonates.
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(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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Bilayer C60 Polymer/h-BN Heterostructures: A DFT Study of Electronic and Optic Properties
by
Leonid A. Chernozatonskii and Aleksey I. Kochaev
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1580; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111580 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
Interest in fullerene-based polymer structures has renewed due to the development of synthesis technologies using thin C60 polymers. Fullerene networks are good semiconductors. In this paper, heterostructure complexes composed of C60 polymer networks on atomically thin dielectric substrates are modeled. Small
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Interest in fullerene-based polymer structures has renewed due to the development of synthesis technologies using thin C60 polymers. Fullerene networks are good semiconductors. In this paper, heterostructure complexes composed of C60 polymer networks on atomically thin dielectric substrates are modeled. Small tensile and compressive deformations make it possible to ensure appropriate placement of monolayer boron nitride with fullerene networks. The choice of a piezoelectric boron nitride substrate was dictated by interest in their applicability in mechanoelectric, photoelectronic, and electro-optical devices with the ability to control their properties. The results we obtained show that C60 polymer/h-BN heterostructures are stable compounds. The van der Waals interaction that arises between them affects their electronic and optical properties.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Nanocomposites and Their Applications in Device and Construction II)
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Optimization of Cohesive Parameters in the Interfacial Transition Zone of Rubberized Concrete Based on the Response Surface Method
by
Kai Min, Xianfeng Pei, Houmin Li, Zhou Cao, Zijiang Yang, Dingyi Hao, Wenchao Li, Cai Liu and Keyang Wu
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1579; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111579 - 3 Jun 2024
Abstract
Rubber concrete has been applied to a certain extent in fatigue-resistant structures due to its good durability. Based on a cohesive model of rubber composed of a five-phase material containing mortar, aggregate, rubber, aggregate-mortar interfacial transition zone (ITZ), and rubber-mortar ITZ, this paper
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Rubber concrete has been applied to a certain extent in fatigue-resistant structures due to its good durability. Based on a cohesive model of rubber composed of a five-phase material containing mortar, aggregate, rubber, aggregate-mortar interfacial transition zone (ITZ), and rubber-mortar ITZ, this paper studies the influence of the cohesive parameters in the rubber-mortar ITZ on the fatigue problem of rubber concrete on the mesoscopic scale. As the weak part of cement-based composite materials, the ITZ has a great influence on the mechanical properties and durability of concrete, but the performance of the ITZ is difficult to test in macro experiments, resulting in difficulties in determining its simulation parameters. Based on the cohesive model with a rubber content of 5%, this study uses Monofactor analysis and the Plackett-Burman test to quickly and effectively determine the primary and secondary influences of the cohesive model parameters in the rubber-mortar ITZ; further, the response surface method is used to optimize the cohesive parameters in the rubber-mortar ITZ, and the numerical simulation results after optimizing the cohesive parameters are compared and analyzed with the simulation results before optimization. The results show that, under the setting of the optimized parameters, the simulation results of each item of the optimal cohesive model parameters in the rubber-mortar ITZ are in line with the reality and closer to the experimental data, and they are also applicable to rubber concrete models with different rubber dosing.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Application of Rubber Composites)
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UV-Cured Highly Crosslinked Polyurethane Acrylate to Serve as a Barrier against Chemical Warfare Agent Simulants
by
Xucong Chen, Linjing Xiao, Hong Li, Yan Cui and Guiyou Wang
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1578; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111578 - 2 Jun 2024
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) curing is an efficient and environmentally friendly curing method. In this paper, UV-cured polyurethane acrylates (PUAs) were investigated as potential military coatings to serve as barriers against chemical warfare agents (CWAs). Seven UV-cured PUA coatings were formulated utilizing hydroxyethyl methacrylate-capped hexamethylene
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Ultraviolet (UV) curing is an efficient and environmentally friendly curing method. In this paper, UV-cured polyurethane acrylates (PUAs) were investigated as potential military coatings to serve as barriers against chemical warfare agents (CWAs). Seven UV-cured PUA coatings were formulated utilizing hydroxyethyl methacrylate-capped hexamethylene diisocyanate trimer (HEMA-Htri) and trimethylolpropane triacrylate-capped polycarbonate prepolymer (PETA-PCDL) as the PUA monomers. Isobornyl acrylate (IBOA) and triethyleneglycol divinyl ether (DVE-3) were employed as reactive diluents. Gas chromatography was utilized to investigate the constitutive relationships between the structures of the PUA coatings and their protective properties against simulant agents for CWAs, including dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP), a nerve agent simulant, and 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), a mustard simulant. The glass transition temperature (Tg) and crosslinking density (υe) of PUAs were found to be crucial factors affecting their ability to serve as barriers against CWAs. The incorporation of IBOA units led to enhanced Tg and barrier performance of the PUAs, resulting in a DMMP retention of less than 0.5% and nearly 0 retention of CEES. However, an excessive introduction of polycarbonate chains decreased the υe and barrier performance of the PUAs. These findings may offer valuable insights for enhancing the protection of UV-cured PU coatings against CWAs.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Novel Polymer Coatings)
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Comparison of Polylactide-Based Active Films Containing Berberine and Quercetin as Systems for Maintaining the Quality and Safety of Blueberries
by
Ewa Olewnik-Kruszkowska, Martina Ferri, Mariana C. Cardeira, Magdalena Gierszewska and Anna Rudawska
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1577; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111577 - 2 Jun 2024
Abstract
Polymeric thin films based on polylactide with an addition of poly(ethylene glycol) as a plasticizer and flavonoids in the form of quercetin and berberine were subjected to tests that were particularly relevant from the point of view of contact with food. A comparative
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Polymeric thin films based on polylactide with an addition of poly(ethylene glycol) as a plasticizer and flavonoids in the form of quercetin and berberine were subjected to tests that were particularly relevant from the point of view of contact with food. A comparative analysis of the effect of individual flavonoids on the antioxidative properties of tested films and blueberry storage was carried out. The influence of active compounds on the water vapor permeability, as well as UV protection, of the obtained materials was investigated. Also, the specific migration of individual flavonoids from obtained materials to food simulants in the form of acetic acid and ethyl alcohol was determined. The crucial point of this study is the storage of blueberries. The obtained results indicate that the selection of packaging, containing individual active compounds, depends on the purpose and requirements that the packaging must meet for particular types of food.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Thin Films and Their Applications)
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Mechanical Properties of Raw Filaments and Printed Specimens: Effects of Fiber Reinforcements and Process Parameters
by
Daniel Vieweger, Sergej Diel, Hans-Georg Schweiger and Ulrich Tetzlaff
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1576; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111576 - 2 Jun 2024
Abstract
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a well-established manufacturing method for producing both prototype and functional components. This study investigates the mechanical properties of FDM components by material and process-related influencing variables. Tensile tests were conducted on seven different materials in their raw filament
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Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a well-established manufacturing method for producing both prototype and functional components. This study investigates the mechanical properties of FDM components by material and process-related influencing variables. Tensile tests were conducted on seven different materials in their raw filament form, two of which were fiber-reinforced, to analyze their material-related influence. To cover a wide range from standard to advanced materials relevant for load-carrying components as well as their respective variations, polylactic acid (PLA), 30% wood-fiber-reinforced PLA, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), a blend of ABS and PC, Nylon, and 30% glass-fiber-reinforced Nylon were selected. The process-related influencing variables were studied using the following process parameters: layer thickness, nozzle diameter, build orientation, nozzle temperature, infill density and pattern, and raster angle. The first test series revealed that the addition of wood fibers significantly worsened the mechanical behavior of PLA due to the lack of fiber bonding to the matrix and significant pore formation. The polymer blend of ABS and PC only showed improvements in stiffness. Significant strength and stiffness improvements were found by embedding glass fibers in Nylon, despite partially poor fiber–matrix bonding. The materials with the best properties were selected for the process parameter analysis. When examining the impact of layer thickness on part strength, a clear correlation was evident. Smaller layer thicknesses resulted in higher strength, while stiffness did not appear to be affected. Conversely, larger nozzle diameters and lower nozzle temperatures only positively impacted stiffness, with little effect on strength. The part orientation did alter the fracture behavior of the test specimens. Although an on-edge orientation resulted in higher stiffness, it failed at lower stresses. Higher infill densities and infill patterns aligned with the load direction led to the best mechanical results. The raster angle had a significant impact on the behavior of the printed bodies. An alternating raster angle resulted in lower strengths and stiffness compared to a unidirectional raster angle. However, it also caused significant stretching due to the rotation of the beads.
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(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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